Literature Review on Business Ethics Essay

Abstract A review of the current literature regarding business ethics was conducted analyzing scholarly peer-reviewed articles about business ethics and their relation to leadership, managerial decision making, corporate social responsibility and overall corporate structure. Increased corporate scandals and the discovery of a rise in unethical business practices have thrown the topic of business ethics into the spotlight. Organizations are expected by their stakeholders to implement strong ethics within their corporate structure and culture. This expectation could be accomplished through strong ethical leadership, formal structures and regulations that place emphasis on ethics, and by making a commitment to corporate social responsibility. Using these guidelines will help organizations overcome the various challenges allowing the business to build a strong ethical foundation that will ultimately benefit the company through increased customer and employee satisfaction, which could result in in creased profits, organizational sustainability and social status. The review of the literature reveals that there is still plenty of room for exploration on the topic of business ethics and particularly with the topic of ethical leadership. It is recommended that more focus be placed on understanding the influence of strong ethical leadership within an organization and how this influence flows down the organizational structure. Once this flow of influence is understood, exploration is necessary to identify the best procedures for developing and sustaining strong influential leadership ethics within the organizational structure. Organizational Design & Business Ethics: A Literature Review: Outline 1) Title Page 2) Abstract 3) Introduction a) Introduction to business ethics and why it is important in current literature. b) Themes present in literature (Thesis) Definition of ethics Ethical leadership Formal structures and regulations Benefits of business ethics 4) Overview of Business Ethics a) Definition of Ethics b) Types of Ethics i) Individualistic ii) Corporate/Business Ethics c) Managerial Ethics i) Relationship Between Laws and Ethical Standards ii) Ethical Decision Making d) Corporate Social Responsibility 5) Implementing Business Ethics Through Leadership a) Values-Based and Ethical Leadership i) Need for Value-Based/Ethical Leaders ii) Characteristics of Values-Based/Ethical Leaders iii) Role of Ethical Leadership in Business Ethics 6) Integrating Ethics Using Formal Structure and Systems a) Codes of ethics b) Programs and other policies to enforce ethical behaviors 7) Benefits of Ethical Organizations Employee Satisfaction/Productivity Increased Profits Social Status Sustainability 8) Conclusion and Recommendations Needs to be more exploration in the topic of ethical leadership Focus on understanding how ethical leadership influences corporate culture and how it flows down the corporate structure Research should attempt to identify the best procedures for developing and sustaining strong influential leadership ethics within the organizational structure. Organizational Design & Business Ethics: A Literature Review Ethics, and particularly the role it should play in business, continues to be a topic of hot discussion in today’s society. Increased corporate scandals and the discovery of a rise in unethical business practices have thrown the topic of business ethics into the spotlight. Over the past few decades many successful, prominent companies have collapsed due to corporate scandals, which resulted not only in the loss of jobs of many employees, but also led to large financial losses of thousands of shareholders. This cascading effect of unethical behavior by company executives led to increased expectations from all stakeholders of an organization. Stakeholders, who include employees, investors, shareholders, and customers, expect organizations to do more than just maximize the bottom line profit; organizational management is expected to accomplish this goal both legally and ethically, while also implementing some sort of program or policy that seeks to benefit society or the environm ent at large. Companies are expected to implement ethics within their organizational structure and culture. This expectation could be accomplished through strong ethical leadership, formal structures, and regulations that place emphasis on ethics, and by making a commitment to corporate social responsibility. Following the implemented ethical procedures and guidelines will help organizations overcome the various ethical dilemmas and challenges, allowing the business to build a strong ethical foundation that will ultimately benefit the company through increased customer and employee satisfaction, which could result in increased profits, organizational sustainability and social status. A review of the current literature regarding business ethics reveals that am emphasis is placed on defining and understanding business ethics, understanding how ethical leadership is used to implement ethics into an organization, identifying how ethics are integrated into the organizational structural, and finally reviewing the benefits of operating an ethical business. Overview of Business Ethics Ethics is a complex construct. One must first understand what ethics is before understanding the important role it plays in business and leadership. The current literature offers many different definitions for ethics, which will be explored, as well as the various types of ethics and their  integrations with organizational management and policies. Definition of Ethics Merriam-Webster (2014) defines ethics as â€Å"rules of behavior based on ideas about what is morally good and bad.† People have varying concepts of what is considered right or wrong or good and bad. For this reason, ethics becomes difficult to define and comply with (De Cremer & de Bettignies, 2013). Oates and Dalmau (2013) define ethics as â€Å"the body of knowledge that deals with the study of universal principles that determine right from wrong† (p. 38). Racelis (2010) further explains that ethics is different from morality in that while morality deals with the principles of right and wrong in general, ethics focuses on the standards of conduct that are generally acceptable to a large group. Therefore, it is important to note, that ethical behavior focuses on what is good for others rather than on what is good for oneself. Mihelic, Lipicnik, and Tekavcic (2010) add to this definition noting that â€Å"ethical behavior is both legally and morally acceptable to the larger community† (p. 32). Business ethics, therefore; is a branch of applied ethics as it relates to the various business activities of human beings (Keller-Krawczyk, 2010). Being able to understand and implement good ethical principles into the business setting is key to developing a strong organizational culture nurtured by ethical principles. Types of Ethics Many times when people speak or write about ethics they refer to one of two types, individual ethics and/or organizational (group) ethics. Scholars have studied both types of ethics in an attempt to understand how individual and organizational ethics intertwine and connect with one another. Accurately interpreting the relationship between the two is crucial to understanding how strong ethical values could be successfully instilled into an organization’s environment. Individualistic ethics. The concept of right and wrong is something that is instilled in individuals from the time of their birth. Individuals may learn what it right and wrong from their parents, teachers, religious  education, or life experiences. They then take what they learn and create their own personal values which help to shape and develop their individual sense of ethics. Elango, Paul, Kundu, and Paudel (2010) explain the various research works that supports the argument that an individual’s personal values and ethical standards are the main driver of a person’s intention to practice ethical behavior. The authors explain that there is strong evidence to support the theory linking an individual’s attitude toward a behavior to the actual behavior of that individual (Elango et al., 2010). Corporate/organizational ethics. Just as individuals create and develop their own ethical standards, groups of individuals may also develop a shared sense of what is considered ethical. Many literary works support the idea that the culture of an organization, including the belief systems, have a profound influence on an employee’s thinking and ultimately on his/her professional behavior (Elango et al., 2010). The ethical behavior of an organization is defined by the corporate culture. Racelis (2009) defines corporate culture as the â€Å"assumptions, beliefs, goals, knowledge and values that are shared by organizational members† (p. 252). The culture of an organization defines the behavior patterns of the employees, profoundly influencing their actions and choices in a given situation. Much research is focused on studying the relationship between corporate ethical values and an individual’s personal ethical values. Elango et al. (2010) hypothesized that employees will have greater ethical intentions if they perceive a high level of organizational ethics. The findings of the study conducted by Elango et al. (2010) indicated that there was a significant relationship between organizational ethics and an individual’s ethical intentions, supporting the notion that organizations could build an ethical business by focusing on creating a positive ethical culture. Likewise, a study conducted by Racelis (2010) also concluded that there is an interaction between individual ethical perceptions and values and the organization’s value systems, providing â€Å"evidence to the theory that an organization’s ideology and culture is indeed likely to shape decision-making and action in that organization† (p. 257). Managerial Ethics An important aspect of business ethics is managerial ethics, which refers to  the decisions, actions, and behaviors of mangers and whether they are considered right or wrong (Daft, 2013). Individuals in positions of management must make the decision every day whether or not to act in an ethical manner. As discussed earlier, deciding what is considered right or wrong ethically, is not always black and white. Many times managers find themselves pushing the limits and entering the grey area of ethics. De Cremer and de Bettignies (2013) explain that in the business environment there are many implicit expectations and norms that motivate managers and ultimately may push them to cross the boundaries and behave unethically. Many times competiveness and greed could push managers into the ethical grey area. According to De Cremer and de Bettingnies (2013), â€Å"This attitude of pushing the limits effectively clouds our own moral limits and, as a result, increases the chances that we eventually will cross the boundaries† (p. 65). Many managers believe if they are not doing anything illegal, than they are acting ethically. This is not always the case; therefore, it is important for managers to understand the difference between laws and ethical standards. Once managers have a fair understanding of what is considered appropriate ethical behavior, they can focus on making good ethical decisions for the organization. Relationship between laws and ethical standards. Keller-Krawczyk (2010) explain that laws are rules of conduct set by a governing body that either requires or prohibits individuals or businesses from performing certain actions. Failure to comply with the set laws may result in punishments such as financial penalties and/or imprisonment. As mentioned previously, it is not uncommon for individuals to believe that if they are operating within the boundaries of the law, then they are behaving ethically. Unfortunately, there are many actions that may be considered legal, but are not considered ethical. Keller-Krawczyk (2010) supports this notion stating that usury (charging high interest rates in countries that do not set a legal limit on rates) is a good example of a behavior that is legal but also considered unethical. Business managers must attempt to understand the relationship and differences between laws and ethics if they wish to help implement ethics within their organization. Managers are often times aware of the laws and regulations because they are formally written and failure to comply  with them will result in some sort of sanctioned punishment, whereas ethical standards are socially construed and failure to comply with these standards is not always punishable under state or federal sanctions. Cameron (2011) explains that ethical standards do not always serve as adequate fixed points for managers because they â€Å"often change over time and circumstance† thus they â€Å"frequently to do not remain stable because they are socially construed† (p. 30). Although laws and regulations are different than ethical standards, managers need to understand how the two can be integrated and used within their organization to help build a solid ethical foundation. Blodgett (2012) acknowledges that many philosophers and legal scholars have attempted to explain the complicated relationship that exists between laws and ethics and although it is still not easily understood, it is evident that there is indeed a connection between the two. A study conducted by Blodgett (2012) explored the idea of â€Å"substantive ethics† (an integration of law and ethics) and how it could be applied to corporate governance as well as the managerial decision-making process. This idea of substantive ethics and how it could be integrated into the formal corporate structure is discussed in greater depth later in this paper. Ethical decision making. One of the major tasks of a manger is to make decisions. The decisions they make not only reflect back on them as an individual, but on the organization as well. Oates and Dalmau (2013) point out that the decisions of managers have a far greater impact on the world today as compared to years ago since technology has allowed for the inter-connection of economies. They go on to explain that a poor decision by a manger in one part of the world can have dramatic consequences for people in another part of the world (Oates & Dalmau, 2013). It is obvious that good decision making is an important part of organizational success. What factors control or influence managerial decision making? Findings of a study conducted by Elango et al. (2010) indicate that both individual ethics and organizational ethics played a role in guiding managers into making ethical choices. This means that managers are influenced by their own ethical values and experiences as well as the ethical standards, practices and procedures discerned in their workplace. These findings were also supported by the study conducted by Racelis (2010) which indicated that an  organization’s culture plays an instrumental role in the decision making process. Oates and Dalmau (2013) explain that ethical decision making is not solely about ensuring that a manger’s decision will not have an adverse affect on others, it also requires that those in positions of management actively look to make decisions that will benefit others. Choosing to make ethical decisions on a daily basis has proven a difficult task for many managers. Managers are constantly faced with ethical dilemmas in the workplace. Mihelic et al. (2010) review various literary works regarding the topic of ethical leadership and identify an important concept stating that ethical managers â€Å"incorporate ethical dimension in the decision-making process, consider the ethical consequences of their decisions and above all try to make fair choices† (p. 33). Corporate Social Responsibility A topic that is closely related and intertwined with the concept of business ethics is corporate social responsibility (CSR). Low and Ang (2013) explain that each organization may have their own definition of CSR; however, each of the definitions seems to share common ground and themes. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000) offers the following definition of CSR: Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. (as cited in Low & Ang, 2013, p. 33). As evident from this detailed definition, CSR plays an instrumental part in the ethical arena of a business. Benn, Todd and Pendleton (2010) theorize that although the concept of CSR is to benefit the society at large, the underlying reason for an organization to implement CSR strategies is to satisfy stakeholder expectations. The authors explain that corporate scandals, fraud and an increase awareness of environmental, social and health concerns has led many stakeholders to lose credibility in corporations (Benn et al., 2010). Low and Ang (2013) emphasize that many external stakeholders are beginning to take a more thorough interest in the activities of an organization by concentrating on not only what the company has done with its products and/or services, but also on how the company has  impacted the environment or local community. As a way to rebuild credibility and satisfy the interests of stakeholders, many organizations are using CSR strategies that seek to create a positive impact on society. Regardless of the motivation behind implementing the CSR strategies, many scholars agree that in order to implement successful CSR policies, organizations need to have a strong ethical foundation (Low & Ang, 2013; Benn et al., 2010). An empirical study conducted by Benn et al. (2010) provided strong evidence that corporate leadership and structure play an instrumental role in embedding CSR strategies and policies across the organization. Thus, since business ethics and CSR are intrinsically intertwined it is imperative that one understands how ethics and CSR could be incorporated within an organization through leadership, formal structures, and systems. Implementing Business Ethics through Leadership Now that the construct of business ethics has been defined and explained, focus needs to be placed on how leadership could be instrumental in strengthening or implementing business ethics within an organization’s culture. Just as there are several different definitions for ethics, there are also many definitions and interpretations of leadership. Noriega and Drew (2013) cite several different definitions of leadership before ultimately arriving at a generalized definition that states â€Å"leadership deals with persuading, inspiring, motivating others, and spearheading useful changes† (p. 34). Likewise, Mihelic et al. (2010) emphasize that the role of a leader is to help direct the behavior of his/her followers toward a desired goal. There are many different types and methods of leadership that allow leaders to accomplish their goals and objectives. The main focus of this paper is on value-based and ethical leadership and how these types of leadership are instrumental i n promoting ethical behavior among employees within their organization. Value-Based and Ethical Leadership Ethics had previously been described as a body of knowledge concerning itself with moral principles that govern the behavior of individuals. Leadership was defined as the act of persuading or influencing individuals toward a desired goal. Therefore, by combining these two definitions, Oates  and Dalmau (2013) derived the following simple definition for ethical leadership: â€Å"the art of helping, guiding, and influencing people to achieve a common goal in a morally acceptable way† (p. 38). Similarly, Busch and Wennes (2012) explain that value-based leadership focuses on two primary leadership dimensions: 1) ensuring the visibility and meaningfulness of values and 2) generating moral engagement within an organization. Although many scholars argue that value-based leadership and ethical leadership are synonymous, Morrison and Mujtaba (2010) review various studies that acknowledge that while the two types of leadership do tend to overlap, there are also major differences that cannot be ignored. Brown and Trevino stress that one significant difference between the two is that â€Å"ethical leadership focuses on the content of the values† while value-based leadership tends to ignore the content, focusing instead on the sharing of values between the leader and followers (as cited in Morrison & Mujtaba, 2010). Taking this into consideration it could be construed that effective ethical leaders are also influential value-based leaders that inspire and enable their followers to make the right choices and adopt the same ethical values embraced by the leader. Viinamaki (2012) supports this idea, explaining that value-based leaders carry the responsibilities of setting ethical goals and standards, rewarding those that achieve the desired outcome of ethical conduct, and penalizing anyone that strays from the set ethical values and standards. In order to comprehend the role ethical and value based leadership plays in business ethics, it is essential that one first understands why there is a need for ethical leadership and is able to identify the characteristics of an effective and influential ethical leader. Need for value-based and ethical leaders. Oates and Dalmau (2013) point out that the need for ethical leadership is most evident is situations where it is absent. Recent corporate scandals such as the collapse of Enron and Arthur Andersen has shed light on the issues of corruption, power and greed revealing that these conditions could wreak havoc on organizations that do not have strong ethical leaders. According to Noriega and Drew (2013), in today’s high-pressured business environment, organizations would find it difficult to meet daily challenges and overcome obstacles if they lacked ethical leadership. The authors explain that more attention has been  focused on ethical leadership because individuals, particularly company stakeholders, are more aware of unethical practices and seek for a way to achieve managerial accountability (Noriega & Drew, 2013). When detailing why value-based leadership was important in organizations, Viinamaki (2012) explains â€Å"values are a m eans of influencing behaviors without the need to resort to formal structures, systems, strategies, or control mechanisms† (p. 29). Characteristics of ethical leaders. There are many traits and qualities that characterize strong ethical leaders. Mihelic et al. (2010) write â€Å"a strong character plays an important role in effective self-leadership and in the process of leading others† (p. 35). The most common traits that scholars have attributed to ethical leaders are integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness (Mihelic et al., 2010; Noriega & Drew, 2013). These three traits are necessary in order to build trusting relationships with followers offering credibility and consistency. Other characteristics of ethical leaders include: responsible, fair, humble, encouraging and respectful of others, shows concern for greater good, innovative and courageous (Mihelic et al., 2010; Noriega & Drew, 2013). Mihelic et al. (2010) explain that in addition to the above characteristic traits it is crucial that ethical leaders embody the following five values: pride, patience, prudence, persistence and perspective. An ethical leader should also use values-based leadership to emphasize and strengthen these ethical values within the organizational structure. Finally, Noriega and Drew (2013) emphasize that high regard of human worth and dignity are at the core of an ethical leader’s belief system. All the decisions and actions are made in accordance with the beliefs and actions of the ethical leader. Role of ethical leadership in business ethics. By definition, leaders persuade or influence their followers toward a desired goal. One of the main goals of ethical and values-based leadership is to motivate their followers to share and embody the same ethical values that they themselves are portraying. A majority of scholars are in agreement that the ethical conduct of an organization is primarily influenced by the leaders who are also responsible for creating and enforcing the codes of conduct to be  followed by the employees (Mihelic et al., 2010). In order for ethical leadership to be successful within an organization, all leaders, especially those that hold senior leadership positions must be committed to the ethical principles they profess and more importantly they must also exemplify these principles through their own actions (Wickham & Donohue). The relationship of a leader and follower could be compared to that of a parent and a child. A child is likely to follow and imitate the actions of the parent, performing in a manner that will likely receive the parent’s approval. Parents wishing to teach their child how to behave properly will want to be a good role model for that child by modeling the desired behavior. Likewise, leaders need to be role models for their employees. Employees who see their leaders modeling the desired ethical behavior will be more likely to act in the same manner, which helps the behavior and ethical principles become a strong part of the corporate culture. Wickham and O’Donahue (2012) support this theory stating â€Å"Leadership, both formal and informal, in the firm needs to be perceived as ‘walking the walk’ as much as ‘talking the talk’ of ethical decision-making and behavior† (p. 23) with internal employees as much as external customers and stakehold ers. Integrating Ethics Using Formal Structure and Systems Creating an ethical business requires that ethics be incorporated into all aspects of the organization. Not only must leaders and employees practice ethical principles, but ethics must be built into the organizational structure. Part of implementing ethics within the organizational structure starts with making sure that ethical leadership begins at the top of the organization and then flows down through all levels of the hierarchy (Oates & Dalmau, 2013O. It was briefly mentioned earlier that a major role of an ethical leader was to enforce the code of conduct that would guide employee behavior within the organization. Creating a code of conduct that emphasizes the important ethical principles the organization wishes to portray is one of several ways ethics could be integrated into an organization. It would also prove beneficial to incorporate ethics into corporate governance laws and policies, particularly by implementing and enforcing a code of ethics. According to Oates and Dalmua (2013), it is necessary for the ethical values and standards to be â€Å"articulated in the  wider context of the organization, society, culture and regulations† (p. 40). Once a solid foundation for business ethics is laid within the structure, organizations need to make sure they implement polices and programs that will continue to help teach and enforce good ethical behavior. Corporate Structure and Ethics Oates and Dalmua (2013) also claim â€Å"Ethical leadership starts at the top, with the company’s board of directors†¦above all, it must be present in the CEO† (p. 40). This is an important notion for implementing business ethics because if ethical leadership does not start at the highest level of management and work its way down, it is highly unlikely that it would be possible to fully integrate ethics within the organizational corporate culture. In addition to instituting ethical leadership at all levels of management, an experimental study conducted by Ellman and Pezanis-Christou (2010) revealed that the decision-making structures of organizations also have a significant effect on the ethical behavior of employees. The study provided evidence to support the theory that subordinates within an organization who were given a voice in the decision making process felt more responsible for the actions of the organization and were thus more inclined to exhibit better ethical behavior than when they were not given a say in the decision-making process (Ellman & Pezanis-Christou, 2010). Therefore, as this study indicates, open communication between leaders and subordinates is a key concept in the ethical implementation process. As discussed earlier, CSR continues to be a popular topic that aligns itself with discussions on business ethics. A major focus of CSR is on creating a sense of shared value between the business, its shareholders, and society. Michelini and Fiorentino (2011) explain that â€Å"from a shared value viewpoint, companies must integrate a social perspective into the core frameworks that they use to understand competition and develop business strategy† (p. 562). In other words, companies need to be sure that they are using an effective business model that will help support their CSR strategies and achieve shared value. Business models refer to the design of a business in regards to how it will create, deliver and capture value (Michelini & Fiorentino, 2011). The research conducted by Michelini and Fiorentino (2011) compared  and contrasted the social and inclusive business models in reference to how they each allow an organization to achieve their goal of shared value. Codes of Ethics It has been stressed that the actions of those in positions of leadership helps to institute ethical behavior in employees. Although this is true, actions are not the only resource that should be used to communicate management’s expectations of proper ethical behavior. Racelis (2010) places emphasis on the fact that individuals are more likely to feel like a vital part of an organization and will more strongly associate themselves with the mission of the company if the organization’s shared perceptions and values are clearly defined. Often times to accomplish this objective, organizations will develop a corporate code of ethics or code of conduct. Blodgett (2012) explains that corporate ethics codes are self-selected statements of laws and ethics that communicate the values and expressions of a corporation. Many corporate ethics codes incorporate the universal business ethical values of honesty, integrity, responsibility, fairness and trust; but they also may contain legal compliance statements to address general business concerns (Blodgett, 2012). It has been proposed by Blodgett (2012) that integrating general laws and procedures into a corporate code of ethics will help businesses see the ethical value in obeying laws and also help them understand that they have a broader responsibility than just strictly following legal laws. Overall, Noriega and Drew (2013) reiterate that ethical codes of conduct are structured by members of senior management and should seek to clarify company expectations, assist employees in the decision-making process and foster appropriate ethical behavior. Programs and Other Policies to Enforce Ethical Behavior In addition to creating a corporate code of ethics and communicating them to all employees within the organization, managers must also find ways to promote, teach, and enforce these ethical principles. Wickham and O’Donahue (2012) suggest that in order to build an ethically intelligent organization, an organization must develop HRM strategies, polices and procedures that center on recruiting, developing, and retaining employees that embody  cognitive, moral, social and emotional intelligence. A focus need to be put on learning how to develop and retain ethically motivated employees. Trapp (2011) shares that organizations could help endure ethical behavior through various business ethics programs such as workshops and e-training. A study by Trapp (2011) revealed that employees were more prone to embrace ethical standards when they were given the opportunity to openly voice their concerns and address the ethical grey areas they may encounter. Organizations can offer open forums or have ethical help hotlines where employees can openly communicate with others when they are faced with ethical dilemmas or areas of grey. Benefits of Ethical Organizations Although many businesses are feeling the push from their stakeholders to run their business on ethically sound principles, ethical business have seen many advantages and benefits as a result of instituting ethical behavior. Some of these benefits may include: increased employee satisfaction and productivity, increased and sustainable profitability, improved social status, and customer/shareholder loyalty and appreciation (Wickham & O’Donohue, 2012). According to Morrison and Mujtaba (2010), companies that follow unethical practices and are managed by unethical leaders diminish and destroy shareholder value due to the high cost associated with unethical actions such as fines and penalties, audit costs and costs associated with loss of customers and reputation; whereas, leaders that operate highly ethical corporations are able to increase shareholder. A positive correlation has been found between a firm’s investment in CSR and an increase in shareholder wealth (Morrison & Mujtaba, 2010). Finally, not only did the collapse of many prominent business due to unethical behavior result in a loss of credibility between stakeholders and businesses, it also resulted in governmental interference and the passage of laws such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX). He and Ho (2010) explained that this law â€Å"introduced significant reform in the corporate governance, accounting, auditing, and reporting environment of publicly traded firms† (p. 624). Compliance with SOX has proven costly for many organizations. He and Ho (2010) believe that organizations led by ethical leaders who institute proper ethical standards and practices do not need to  invest in expensive monitoring programs because they could meet governmental regulations in a more efficient manner with minimal monitoring. Conclusion and Recommendations Organizations continue to be confronted with increased ethical challenges as leaders are continually tempted to exchange ethical behavior for increased money and power. Individuals in society continue to be appalled by the number of large and powerful corporations that have collapsed and fallen due to corporate fraud and scandal. This has led many stakeholders to become skeptical of business operations, leading them to demand an incorporation of ethics into every day business practices. Corporations wishing to satisfy this new expectation and regain the confidence and trust of not only external stakeholders but if their own employees must seek to find ways to implement business ethics within their organizational culture. Ethics is a complex construct to interpret and understand. Each individual has his/her own opinion regarding what constitutes good ethical behavior. There is no single definition for ethics, although most of the definitions provided by scholars revolve around common themes. Regardless of the debate about what truly constitutes ethics, there is a strong consensus that an indisputable need for ethics exists inside organizations. For this reason, there is much focus placed on ethics and how it pertains to business throughout literary works. Scholars continue to research and conduct various studies regarding the best way to institute ethics within an organization. Much of this literature was reviewed and evaluated to identify common themes that existed among the works. The literature includes explanations of various studies that provide support showing it is possible for organizations to meet the ethical expectations of the stakeholders by instituting strong ethical leadership within the organizations from the top down. These ethical leaders need to possess the important ethical qualities of honesty, integrity and trustworthiness and should practice the ethical behavior they profess, serving as exemplary role models for their followers. In addition, these ethical leaders are responsible for creating and enforcing formal policies and programs within their organization that place emphasis on the ethical values and standards  the business desires to convey. These formal structures include implementing and communicating a corporate code of ethics for the organizations and instituting programs that will help educate and develop the employees in r egards to the ethical standards and values. Organizations that are successfully able institute ethical leadership and use it to build a strong ethical foundation find that ethics inevitably become a part of the organizational culture. Ethical companies create shared value between the business, shareholders and society through CSR initiatives. Highly ethical organizations also see that their ethical practices benefit them through increased employee satisfaction and productivity, customer and shareholder appreciation, increased sustainable profitability, and social status. A detailed review of the literature on ethics reveals that there is still plenty of room for exploration on the topic of business ethics and particularly with the topic of ethical leadership. Since it appears that ethical leadership is the key to integrating ethical behavior within an organization, more studies should be conducted to determine the best approaches for leaders to do this. Leadership is all about persuasion and influence. It is recommended that more focus be placed on understanding the influence of strong ethical leadership within an organization and how this influence flows down the organizational structure. Once this flow of influence is understood, exploration is necessary to identify the best procedures for developing and sustaining strong influential leadership ethics within the organizational structure. References Benn, S., Todd, L. R., & Pendleton, J. (2010). Public relations leadership in corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 96(3), 403-423. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0474-5 Blodgett, M. (2011). Substantive ethics: Integrating law and ethics in corporate ethics programs. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(1), 39-48. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1165-6 Busch, T., & Wennes, G. (2012). Changing values in the modern public sector: The need for value-based leadership. The International Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 8(4), 201-215. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17479881211323599 Cameron, K. (2011). Responsible leadership as virtuous leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 98(1), 25-35. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1023-6 Daft, R. L. (2013). Organization theory & design. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. De Cremer, D. and de Bettignies, H.-C. (2013), Pragmatic business ethics. Business Strategy Review, 24(2), 64–67. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8616.2013.00950.x/pdf Elango, B., Paul, K., Kundu, S. K., & Paudel, S. K. (2010). Organizational ethics, individual ethics, and ethical intentions in international decision-making. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(4), 543-561. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0524-z Ellman, M., & Pezanis-Christou, P. (2010). Organizational structure, communication, and group ethics. The American Ec onomic Review, 100(5), 2478-2491. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.5.2478 Ethic – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2014). Retrieved May 4, 2014, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic Keller-Krawczyk, L. (2010). Is business ethics possible and necessary? Economics & Sociology, 3(1), 133-142,149. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1038947534?accountid=12085 He, L., & Ho, S. K. (2011). Monitoring costs, managerial ethics and corporate governance: A modeling approach. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(4), 623-635. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0672-1 Low, P. K. C., & Ang, S. L. (2013). Confucian ethics, governance and corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Business and Management, 8(4), 30-43. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1327711156?accountid=12085 Michelini, L., & Fiorentino, D., (2012). New business models for creating shared value, Social Responsibility Journal, 8(4 ), 561-577. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/journals.htm?articleid=17058148 Mihelic, K. K., Lipicnik, B., & Tekavcic, M. (2010). Ethical leadership. International Journal of Management and Information Systems, 14(5), 31-41. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/819649567?accountid=12085 Morrison, H., & Mujtaba, B. G. (2010).

The Impact Of Cooperative Listening Materials Adaptation Education Essay

Abstraction Listening comprehension has gained more prominence in EFL/ESL categories. Due to this prominence, bookmans have tried to cast visible radiation on different ways of bettering scholars ‘ listening comprehension. One of these ways is utilizing listening schemes. There is still a contention over the effectual function of these schemes in bettering listening comprehension. Therefore, the proposed schemes have ever been reviewed and reformed. Adopting either scheme, the class shall be rather uneffective if it fails to increase scholars ‘ engagement in the class. The intent of this survey was to look into whether or non peer-cooperative self-access stuffs version has any consequence on scholars ‘ engagement and engagement in listening categories. In add-on, the present survey tried to examine any possible alterations in pupils ‘ attitude toward listening as a consequence of the intervention. In order to carry through the intent of the survey, 90 Persian pupils who w ere analyzing at Islamic Azad University, an independent university, were selected based on their obtained tonss in a linguistic communication proficiency trial ( TOEFL ) . They were indiscriminately assigned to one control and two experimental groups. Then they undertook a 17-session intervention. With a quasi-experimental pretest posttest design, it became apparent that holding pupils adapt listening stuffs improved listening comprehension public presentation. And besides a positive alteration occurred in pupils ‘ overall attitude toward listening. Keywords: Material version, Self-Access stuff, Listening Comprehension, Cooperative version Introduction Not until decreasing prominence of Latin ( Richard & A ; Rodgers, 2001 ) , listening was paid much attending. Stressing the of import function of listening, research workers argue that larning shall be enhanced through understanding the intended significance. It is done through processing and comprehending the characteristics of the linguistic communication and/or transforming informations into information ( Alalou & A ; Chamberlain, 1999 ; Finocchiaro & A ; Bonomo, 1973 ; Horton, 2000 ; Molina, 1997 ) .Thus it would be advisable to see listening as an incorporate portion of linguistic communication categories because developing different modes of accomplishments like listening provides scholars with rich linguistic communication acquisition experiences. Otherwise, low listening proficiency may deter scholars to actively take part in unwritten treatments ( Hayati & A ; jalilfar, 2009 ) . On the other manus, such experiences help scholars successfully monitor their ain acquisition ( R ichards, 2008 ) . In other words, scholars will use the acquisition schemes including meta-cognitive, cognitive and socio-effective 1s to supervise their acquisition procedure ( Shirini Bidabadi & A ; Yamat, 2011 ) . Furthermore, â€Å" See [ ing ] linguistic communication in-use † motivates scholars through doing the linguistic communication larning puting more interesting ( Harmer, 2001. p. 282 ) . Yet it is instead hard to promote scholars to affect themselves in listening procedure as the consequence of either medium or context ( McDonough and Shaw, 1997 ) . One possible solution is to better scholars ‘ attitude through acquiring them familiar with the procedure involved ( Taylor, 1981 ) . Such consciousness enables scholars to use what they have learnt to better their linguistic communication skills non merely during but besides after the class. This can be achieved merely through guaranting that instructional content being developed best suits the pupils ‘ demands and co-ordinates foreign linguistic communication direction on a campus-wide footing ( Branch, 1998 ; Chaput, 1993 ; McApline, 1998 ) . Materials development is a cyclic procedure that ne'er ends. In a sense, in no phase of this procedure, one would be certain of the rightness of the included stuffs for a peculiar group of scholars in a peculiar scene. So, the stuffs should ever be revised when it is traveling to be used in different scenes. Tomlinson ( 2005 ) argues that most EFL stuffs are written by well-qualified native-speaker instructors who experienced merely little categories with motivated scholars. Yet most users of these stuffs experience EFL in big category of unmotivated scholars. In a nutshell, the context is wholly different. To work out this job, Nunan ( 1993 ) believes non until we expand pupils ‘ and instructors ‘ apprehension of the procedures involved in linguistic communication acquisition, we can non develop appropriate classs. Such understanding brings about consistence among the undermentioned variables: context ( national, regional aˆÂ ¦ ) scholars ( age, linguistic communication degree aˆÂ ¦ ) instructors ( personality, learning manners aˆÂ ¦ ) stuffs ( text, undertakings aˆÂ ¦ ) intent and aims ( class course of study aˆÂ ¦ ) ( Masuhara, 2004. pp. 1-3 ) Problem statement About 50 to 70 per centum of the category clip is spent on hearing ; nevertheless, it is done inefficaciously ( Jalongo, 1991 ; Smith, 1992 ) . Hence instructors ‘ ailment about the deficiency of instructional stuffs on hearing is n't uncommon ( Swanson, 1997 ) . They have been discoursing the lack of some listening stuffs available to the instructors and pupils ( Fujiwara, 1996 ; Rost, 2001 ) . The job is non merely with the importance of learning the hearing accomplishment, but it is with the activities, processs and stuffs adopted to near it. In appropriate listening stuff, as reported by Yasin Sharif and Ferdous ( 2012 ) , leads to listening comprehension anxiousness. Empirically, carry oning such a survey might add to our apprehension of the procedure of listening comprehension. The consequences of such a survey might be of value both to instructors, course of study interior decorators and even pupils. Merely that manner they can assist scholars be equipped with listening accomplishment, and accordingly heighten their acquisition via hearing ( Molina, 1997 ) . Making so, it is apparently required to look into the sorts of Schemes and techniques curriculum interior decorators and stuff developers can utilize to assist scholars better their hearing comprehension. Since larning stuff is the nucleus beginning in any language-teaching/learning plan ( Richards, 2010 ) , sing these schemes and techniques while planing, they assert, will guarantee us that the designed hearing stuffs appeal to scholars ‘ personal involvement ( Brown, 2001 ; Nunan, 1997 ) . It will prolong attending and positive emotion. cooperatively-adapted ( instructor and pupils ) stuffs non merely enjoys high face cogency but consequences besides in consistence in assemblage of divergent sentiments at times convenient to participants ; meetings dominated by content non personality ; attachment to a structured docket without loss of those thoughts after the session ends ( Helten & A ; Nye, 2005 ) Therefore such coaction in stuffs version ensures the success of the plan. Yet the impression of including the most appropriate stuffs to run into the lesson aims, class and leaners ‘ demands is comparatively new to the research literature ( Tomlinson, 2001 ) . Bearing it in head, research workers have conducted a figure of surveies on class design, stuffs development and scheme preparation. They hoped they could assist scholars go independent. Research Questions In the present survey, listening as a macro-skill as stated by Nunan ( 1993 ) and material version ( an of import phase of course of study development ) are selected as the starting point. Thus material version is intended to pull the pupils ‘ attending and affect them into the learning plan. Based upon such an premise, the present survey was developed to look into whether peer self-access stuff version has any consequence on listening comprehension, and whether or non this would alter the pupils ‘ attitude toward listening comprehension. In order to give way to the survey, the undermentioned inquiries were formulated: Does peer concerted self-access hearing stuffs adaptation have any consequence on genre-based hearing comprehension ( films and intelligence ) of Persian EFL scholars? Does peer concerted self-access hearing stuffs adaptation have any consequence on Persian EFL scholars ‘ perceptual experience of listening comprehension acquisition? These directing inquiries are seeking to touch the facet of a receptive accomplishment which harmonizing to Carkin ( 2005 ) â€Å" lacks the strong background of†¦ literate accomplishments † ( p. 114 ) . Such a instead weak background stems from the fact few surveies have been carried out on stuffs development in general and listening stuffs version inparticular ( Bhatia, 1994 ; Brown, 2001 ; Fujiwara, 1996 ; Rashidi & A ; Safari, 2011 ; Tomlinson, 2001 ) . Literature Review Uvin ( 1996 ) , in an effort that led to the development of an ESOL class for Chinese health-care workers, asserts that scholars and clients should be actively involved in all phases of class and stuff development. Doing so would ease the scholars ‘ engagement. To trip scholars ‘ engagement, he used two attacks. Problem-posing: here, a state of affairs was described and scholars were supposed to respond by â€Å" treatment, planning, action and feedback † ( p. 49 ) . The other attack was experimental acquisition in which scholars ‘ day-to-day experience was used. These attacks, he argues, helped scholars achieve competences ( sense of ownership, motive and self-pride ) . In add-on, category activities became more compatible with preferable acquisition activities. Materials, he continues, were extremely relevant because they were all generated by the scholars. Pinheiro ( 1996 ) , in a survey on planing a authorship constituent, regarded the scholars ‘ background. Therefore, she provides the scholars with in-class and out-of-class ranked activities. Having conducted the survey, she argues that such a procedure may increase scholars ‘ interaction or coaction. Sing listening some surveies have been done excessively. Fujiwara ( 1996 ) , seeking to promote the scholars to be more active in the hearing category and better their attitude, involved scholars in the procedure of stuffs version. She designed listening diary prep. At the terminal, she, in a study, found that the scholars ‘ attitude toward listening had become more positive and their comprehension had greatly improved. All the above surveies have been carried out to ease comprehension public presentation. However, scholars ‘ demands should non lose sight of. In different state of affairss the scholars ‘ demands differ from one another. To guarantee that these demands will decidedly be met those who undertake listening stuff development demand to acquire familiar with the scholars at least through a distributed questionnaire. Roll uping such informations that manner increases the possibility of run intoing such demands. 2. Methodology 2.1 Participants The survey can be categorized as the quasi-experimental pretest posttest control group design. The field work was conducted in Islamic Azad University of Qom where 90 participants ( both females and males ) were selected based upon their tonss on the TOEFL Test ( 2008 ) . The trial was given to 120 pupils, and from among those who clustered around the entire mean, 90 pupils were selected. 60 pupils were assigned to the experimental group, which included two subgroups with 30 pupils each, the staying 30 pupils were assigned to the control group. Ages of participants ranged from 20 to 26. They were all senior pupils analyzing at their 6th term. They enrolled in a two-credit class on either â€Å" Oral interlingual rendition II † or â€Å" Movie interlingual rendition. † In this survey, peer concerted stuff version and genre-based hearing ( intelligence and films ) were considered as independent variables ; while, scholars ‘ listening comprehension public presentation and pupils ‘ attitudes toward listening as the dependent variables. 2.2 Instruments The instruments used in this survey include a standardised TOEFL trial ( adopted from Barron TOEFL 2008 ) , a standardised hearing trial ( TOEFL ) used as the â€Å" pretest † and â€Å" posttest † and a questionnaire. In add-on to the major instruments, a instructor ‘s usher and informal observation were besides used to command some of the variables, which were supposed to act upon cogency of the survey. Teacher ‘s usher, the 2nd instrument, was one of the steps taken to guarantee instructors were following the same processs for comparison intents. As non to pique experient instructors or overload instructors ‘ heads with inside informations, instructors guide points were formulated as suggestions and efforts were made non to travel into inside informations of the stairss in different stages of each lesson. The other step taken to guarantee consistence in managing the intervention was informal observation. The research worker himself attended the categories without anterior notice. The intent was to see if the instructors adhered to the instructors ‘ usher provided by the research worker. Then, for the pretest, a TOEFL trial was administered. Siting it, the pupils were required to reply 122 multiple-choice points consisting listening subdivision with 50 points, usage of English with 26 points and reading comprehension with 46 points.This trial was used to measure both linguistic communication and listening proficiency degree of the scholars. Posttest was the following instrument used to mensurate the topics ‘ accomplishment after the intervention. In order to examine whether or non there is any alteration in the listening public presentation of the scholars, a standardised hearing trial was used. The listening portion of the TOEFL trial, which was used as the pretest and comprised 50 points was once more administered to all three groups. The questionnaire was the last instrument used in the present survey. The questionnaire was organized into three parts. The first portion aims at arousing the demographic information ; full name ( optional ) , major, and the participants ‘ survey semester. The 2nd portion included 20 points. The intent was to analyze the attitude of the respondents towards listening. In this subdivision pupils ‘ replies were mapped on a five-level Liker Scale ( 1 bespeaking â€Å" strongly hold † and 5 â€Å" strongly differ † ) . Finally, in the 3rd subdivision, the respondents ‘ remarks were elicited through an open-ended inquiry. The whole points in the questionnaire were categorized into two parts. The firs portion measures pupils ‘ positive attitudes ; while the 2nd portion negative 1s. To guarantee the lucidity and understandability of the points included for the participants, the questionnaire was constructed in patricipants ‘ L1. 2.3 Data Analysis In order to analyze the psychometries of the questionnaire utilized in this survey, a pilot survey was carried out. To gauge its cogency and dependability of the points included, the feedback of three PhD holders in TEFL was collected sing the suitableness ( relevancy ) and lucidity of the points included. They were supposed to rate the points in 1-5 evaluation graduated table on two feedback signifiers ( one for suitableness and the other for lucidity ) . As table 1 and 2 indicate, the critical value of â€Å" R † at 22 grades of freedom is.43. Since all the computed â€Å" R † are higher than.43, it shows a high grade of understanding among the raters on the relevancy and lucidity of each point in the questionnaire at the important degree of 0.01 ( 2-tailed ) . Table 1. Spearman Inter-Rater Correlation Co-efficient ( Relevance ) Rater 1 Rater 2 Rater 3 Rater 1 Pearson Correlation 1 .749 ( ** ) .678 ( ** ) Rater 2 Pearson Correlation .749 ( ** ) 1 .694 ( ** ) Rater 3 Pearson Correlation .678 ( ** ) .694 ( ** ) 1 Table 2. Spearman Inter-Rater Correlation Co-efficient ( Clarity ) Rater 1 Rater 2 Rater 3 Rater 1 Pearson Correlation 1.000 .806 ( ** ) .693 ( ** ) Rater 2 Pearson Correlation .806 ( ** ) 1.000 .626 ( ** ) Rater 3 Pearson Correlation .693 ( ** ) .626 ( ** ) 1.000 Alternatively, an effort was made to prove out the dependability of the questionnaire. In so making, the questionnaire was administrated to 23 EFL pupils ( 15 females and 8 males ) . The informations obtained were fed into the SPSS package to run Cornbach alpha. The consequences showed that the questionnaire was dependable ( I ¬=0.74 ) . Procedure In order to transport out the present survey, the undermentioned stairss were followed. First, the TOEFL trial was administrated in the first session of the term to function a double intent. It was traveling to mensurate the general linguistic communication and listening proficiency degree of the pupils to guarantee that all topics are approximately at the same degree of proficiency. Having done it, the homogeneousness of the groups was assured. In instance of the homogeneousness of the topics, the trial aimed at choosing 90 topics in the available categories. The 90 topics were selected from among those whose tonss fell one criterion divergence above and below the mean. The chosen topics were so, indiscriminately, assigned to two experimental groups and one control one. The listening portion of the TOEFL trial was besides used as the pretest. Then the listening portion used as pretest was once more administrated as the posttest. The intent was to analyze the alterations that might hold occurred in the listening ability of the pupils. Next, the questionnaire was administered to look into the scholars ‘ perceptual experiences toward listening. Therefore an attitude questionnaire was used both at the beginning and terminal of the survey. The experimental groups received the intervention, which consisted of assignments for learning listening comprehension. The assignments were different from what were the normal instruction processs used with control group. The control group was fundamentally exposed to listening audio plans, which were played and replayed for comprehension intents followed by activities focused on linguistic communication of the texts used for listening. The experimental groups were exposed to listening stuffs that are intelligence and films. The stuffs were selected by the pupils themselves. The activities were designed based on theoretical accounts proposed by Brown ( 2001, see Pp. 260- 264 ) . Following the 17-session intervention, the attitude questionnaire was given to the groups to find any alterations or deficiency of alterations in their attitudes. Attempts were made over the intervention period to hold instead the same status in all these categories. One manner to run into such a standard was to inquire the instructors to carry through the undertakings in conformity with cheque list provided to them. In order to look into whether the same processs were used toward the instruction stuffs and whether the categories were held harmonizing to the checklist provided to the instructors, informal observations were conducted. The standard for observation were those points included in the checklist. This sort of observation showed that all the instructors followed the guidelines in the checklist. The instructor assumed the function of adviser in the experimental groups. In other words, at the beginning of the experiment, the instructor introduced the standards needed to be taken into history while accommodating listening stuffs in a briefing session. Then, he was available for audience at the different phases of the procedure. On the other manus, the instructor was the lone beginning of information in the control group. 3. Consequences and Discussion The first statistic was Descriptive to guarantee the homogeneousness of the groups. It is shown in table 1. Table 1. Descriptive Statisticss of the tonss in the TOEFL trial Nitrogen No of Items Mean South dakota 120 122 15.4 2.04 From among the pupils whose tonss were one standard divergence above and below the mean, 90 pupils out of 120 were selected. Then, they were indiscriminately assigned to 3 groups ( two experimental groups and one control group ) . Table 2 shows that the mean and discrepancy of the three groups with 30 members each are about the same, so the three groups can be considered as homogeneous. Table 2. Descriptive Statisticss of Proficiency trial Nitrogen Mean Std. Deviation Discrepancy EXP-G1 ( film ) 30 15.02 2.04285 4.173 EXP-G2 ( News ) 30 15.35 2.04223 4.171 Control-G 30 15.08 1.99613 3.484 In order to look into listening ability of these three groups, the tonss obtained in the listening portion of TOEFL were once more fed into SPSS. The consequences are presented in table 3. Table 3. Descriptive statistics of Listening Proficiency trial Nitrogen Mean Std. Deviation Discrepancy Exp-G1 ( film ) 30 13.95 3.09 9.60 Exp-G2 ( News ) 30 13.01 3.12 9.77 Control G 30 13.63 3.41 10.60 It can be inferred from the informations that the three groups had about the same Mean and Standard divergence, which indicate the homogeneousness of the groups sing listening ability. The following effort was to find the pupils ‘ perceptual experience toward listening larning before transporting out the intervention. In so making, the questionnaire was distributed among the topics. Then, the consequences obtained from the first disposal of the questionnaire were gathered and fed into SPSS. In order to look into whether the difference was important, Chi-Square was run. Table 5 summarizes the consequences. Table 4. Chi-Square Statisticss for pretest Chi-Square Trials Value df Asymp. Sig. ( 2-sided ) Pearson Chi-Square 138.895 ( a ) 4 .000 Likelihood Ratio 143.839 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 120.582 1 .000 A 0 cells ( .0 % ) have expected count less than 5. The lower limit expected count is 44.96. The figure shown in table 4 indicates that there is a important relationship between points mensurating positive attitude and those mensurating negative attitude. In order to look into whether the magnitude of the topics ‘ inclination moves toward positive or negative, a correlativity coefficient was run. Table 5. Spearman ‘ rho correlativities of points of questionnaire Positive Negative Sum Sum Correlation Coefficient .620 ( ** ) .848 ( ** ) 1.000 As depicted in table 5, the correlativity between the overall mark and the negative subdivision is much higher than the correlativity between the overall mark and the mark of the positive subdivision at the important degree of 0.01. This suggests that the pupils have an overall negative attitude toward listening. In order to reply the first research inquiry, the addition mark of each pupil was calculated. Derive tonss calculated show 13 % betterment on pupils ‘ listening accomplishment. In order to see if there was any important difference between the average mark of three groups, a One-way ANOVA was conducted on the addition mark. The P value, at 2 and 87 grade of freedom was smaller than.05 ( table 6 ) . Table 6. The consequences of One-Way ANOVA for the Gain Mark Sum of Squares df F Sig. Between Groups 4.83 2 20.21 .00 Within Groups 10.41 87 The consequences obtained from running One-Way ANOVA showed that there were important differences between the average tonss of these three groups. This consequence does non demo where precisely the existent differences lie. To happen out where the groups were significantly different, a Pos Hoc comparing of agencies ( Tukey ) was conducted. Table 7. The consequences of Multiple Comparisons ( Tukey ) for the Posttest Average Difference ( I-J ) Std. Mistake Sig. 95 % Confidence Interval Control-G Exp-G2 ( intelligence ) .52 ( * ) .089 .00 .73 .30 Exp-G1 ( Movie ) .45 ( * ) .089 .00 .66 .24 Exp-G2 ( intelligence ) Control-G .52 ( * ) .089 .00 .30 .73 Exp-G1 ( Movie ) .06 .089 .74 .14 .27 Exp-G1 ( Movie ) Control .45 ( * ) .089 .00 .24 .66 Exp-G2 ( intelligence ) .06 .089 .74 .27 .14 As it is shown in Table 7, there is a important difference at the degree of 0.05 between the Control and Experimental ( News ) and Experimental ( Movie ) . The consequences besides show that there is no difference between the Experimental groups. In order to reply the 2nd research inquiry, the consequences of the 2nd disposal of the attitude questionnaire were fed into SPSS. The consequences are shown in table 8. Table 8. Chi-Square Statisticss for Posttest Value df Asymp. Sig. ( 2-sided ) Pearson Chi-Square 122.062 ( a ) 4 .000 Likelihood Ratio 125.407 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 105.693 1 .000 Harmonizing to the consequences presented in table 8, the difference is important at alpha degree of.05. To be able to demo the attitude way move clearly, a correlativity coefficient was run. The consequences are summarized in table 9. Table 9. The Spearman ‘ rho correlativities of points of questionnaire Positive Negative Sum Spearman ‘ rho Sum Correlation Coefficient .854 ( ** ) .565 ( ** ) 1.000 The consequences show that the correlativity found between the positive points and the entire figure of responses is higher than the correlativity between the tonss on the negative inquiries and the entire mark. The figure 0.85 is much higher than 0.56, which suggests a positive way in pupils ‘ attitude. The abovementioned consequences for the first phase of the survey indicate that concerted stuffs adaptation significantly affected the listening public presentation of linguistic communication scholars. The ground may be due to the fact that adapted listening stuffs met scholars ‘ demands, were interesting to them and accordingly increased scholars ‘ engagement. Subsequently the instructor shall detect an betterment in scholars ‘ addition tonss. In this survey, the topics in the experimental groups who had the opportunity to accommodate listening stuffs hand in glove accomplished the undertakings assigned better than those in the control group who did non hold such an chance. It advocates the necessity of affecting those who are traveling to utilize the hearing stuffs in the procedure of stuff usage version to guarantee run intoing run into the true demands of the pupils ( Tomlinson, Dat, Masuhara and Rudby, 2001 ) . As for the consequences for the 2nd portion of the survey, the impact of such a Strategy on altering scholars ‘ attitude toward listening was probed. In this survey, a positive alteration occurred in the attitude of scholars in experimental groups though the so great. So it may be concluded that the attitude improved as listening stuffs users were playing an active function in the procedure of instructional stuffs development. The ground of such a alteration might be due to raising scholars ‘ consciousness, run intoing their true demands and concerted stuffs version. The consequences support the earlier surveies done on different facets of affecting scholars in the procedure of larning stuffs version. Using a process reverse to the most common one ( teacher selected stuff ) presently exercised by instructors in learning listening comprehension, Fujiwara ( 1996 ) reported a alteration in the public presentation and attitude of those who themselves adapted listening stuffs. Unlike her topics who adapted stuffs in isolation based upon listening diary, the topics of the present survey adapted stuffs hand in glove from among self-access stuffs. This scheme proved to promote scholars to be involved in executing in-class and out-class hearing activities in order to better their hearing public presentation. As stated by Tomlinson, Dat, Masuhara and Rudby ( 2001 ) and Fujiwara ( 1996 ) the benefits achieved through the engagement of scholars may be important provided that such process is employed by stuff interior decorators and instructors. The findings besides support a work by Uvin ( 1996 ) . He reported that larning would be fascinated through the engagement of the scholars into all phases of ESOL class. Like his attack, in this survey, job resolution technique ( treatment, planning and action ) was utilised toward stuffs version. Finally the consequences of the survey go in line with a work by Pinheiro ( 1996 ) . She in her survey relied chiefly on scholars ‘ anterior experiences and background while developing the instructional stuffs. Like her survey, the findings show an betterment in compatibility of larning activities. She reported an addition in scholars ‘ interaction and coaction as the consequences of such compatibility. Based on such findings peer concerted self-access stuff version serves as an foil in the procedure of listening comprehension instruction and development of this accomplishment. This scheme helps the instructors motivate and encourage EFL scholars to take part in in-class and out-class hearing activities. Yet it is apparently required to keep a briefing session during which the major acquisition issues are introduced and discussed. The general result of the session was bettering scholars ‘ consciousness. The 2nd result which straight contributes to such an consciousness was version of stuffs which best suited their demands. Marrying up these two and peer cooperation led to high degree of engagement, interaction, coaction and finally a sense of accomplishment. However, there is still a fact that should non be lost sight of. Material version by scholars does n't intend that merely scholars should set about material version. What the scholars do demands to be supplemented by audience, aid and support on the portion of the instructors. In fact the function of rating listening stuffs and undertakings, which is needed to be carried out merely by professionals- stuff developers, instructors and etc, should non be ignored. The latter is surely a common process peculiarly used by instructors in listening categories, and it has confirmed to be affectional ( Nunan, 1993 ) . However, the usage of scholars ‘ engagement as a scheme offers some possible extra advantages to listening comprehension sweetening. 4. Decision and Deductions Didactically talking, the findings of the present survey should modify our understating of nature of stuffs version. Through version activities, scholars non merely see the existent usage of linguistic communication but besides the input they receive will be enriched culturally ( Alalou and Chamberlain, 1999 ) . One thing that debilitates listening comprehension is the deficiency of EFL scholars ‘ engagement in the procedure. An appropriate solution for this job is the engagement of scholars in the procedure of stuff version support teachers a batch because first it motivates scholars to take part enthusiastically in the hearing activities ( Hull, 1996 ) . It is merely because when they adapt listening stuffs, the stuff adapted will be based on their involvement. Therefore, they needfully become to the full involved in larning the new linguistic communication. Second, in their efforts to accommodate self-access hearing stuffs, run intoing their true demands is guaranteed. Third , it allows the pupils to be more adventuresome with the linguistic communication. This at the terminal enriches input from cultural point of position. As a affair of fact, larning and stabilising a new linguistic communication through promoting scholars to go involved volitionally in listening undertakings is one side of the coin. The other one is that instructors and stuff developers can acknowledge the debatable countries in listening through the procedure. Practically, strategic usage of equal concerted self-access stuff version has positive slipstream consequence on learning. In a better sense, instructors can easy detect cognition spreads and seek to take the obstructions. This is achieved through allowing scholars cheque and examine the available hearing stuffs harmonizing to their demands and involvements. Meantime, scholars should be concerted and at the same clip independent. Knowing it, the course of study interior decorators and stuff developers along with the instructors can successfully accommodate effectual hearing stuffs. Therefore, it apparently is the duty of the course of study interior decorators and stuff developers to affect scholars in the procedure of stuff version to the extent that their enthusiastic engagement additions and as the consequence larning takes topographic point. Hopefully, this survey is non an stoping but the beginning. More research is needed to be done to increase our apprehension of how different factors such as different proficiency degrees, genres and linguistic communication accomplishments may impact scholars ‘ engagement, attitude and accordingly public presentation. Recognitions The honest university professors, my co-workers, pupils and friends have been of priceless aid in the readying of this research. My debt of gratitude is to Dr. M.R. Anani Sarab whose priceless cooperation and aid helped me transport out this undertaking. I am highly thankful to Dr. M. R. Ataii for supplying me nice remarks to enrich the undertaking.

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If people are just complex machines, what does that suggest about the moral status of machines Could I be committing murder every time I turn off my computer - Essay Example Every machine has a system that makes it work, which is composed of several electrical and mechanical subsystems. Likewise, human body functions as a result of mutual work of circulatory system, digestive system, and respiratory system etc. On the other hand, like every machine either needs charging or fueling to work, human body needs food for the systems to work. This paper analyzes the moral status of the act of turning a computer off and discusses whether it can be called as a murder or not in light of the perception that humans are just complex machines. While humans may qualify to be called machines keeping these factors in mind, there is a very important factor that humans contain that machines do not; Emotions. Humans have feelings. They can not only think, but also evaluate the pros and cons of different options and select the most suitable option in a given context. Machines do not have this capability. Some machines like computers do have the capability to evaluate the different variables of certain mathematical procedures, but that knowledge is fed into the computer by humans themselves. A computer does not have the capability to feel for something nor does any other machine. On this basis, it is irrational to define humans as complex machines. Hence, on the basis of the argument that humans are much more than complex machines, it is not justified to comment upon the moral status of machines as the laws of machines are different from those of the humans. While a human can be sentenced to death for having committed the murder of another human, a machine cannot be dealt with in the same way since the machine cannot commit murders in the first place. Likewise, turning a computer off is not similar to committing a murder. Concluding, on the basis of the points discussed in this paper, it is wrong to think of the act of turning a computer off

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About real estate in China - Essay Example Even they have experienced appreciation in price too. In this scenario certain statistics can be encompassed. Prices of high-end real estate have risen up to 54% from September of the year 2009 and the price became $500 per square foot. Even only in November, the housing prices rose 5.7% in 70 major cities. Construction of houses had drafted a nationwide staggering rise of 194 percent (Bloomberg Business week, â€Å"Is China Headed for A Major Real Estate Bubble?†). Not only the real estate but also the economy of China has also been booming. China has experienced a growth of 17.4% in the average annual rate of foreign trade. It has increased up to US$ 2,173.7 billion from US$ 20.6 billion over last 30 years (Xinhua, â€Å"China Ranks 2nd with 8.8% Of Worlds Exports  In 2007†). With economic growth, purchasing power of an individual will also be high and at the same time their consumption level will also enhance. It indicates that they will either opt for luxury or will seek for investment option. In both the situations, real estate industry will be benefited. Being a student of Finance and possessing sound knowledge in economics, I am well aware of the recent economic developments in China. Moreover it has left its footprint in the world economy during the global recession. It will be my privilege to work in such an economy. Even it is a recognized fact that getting involved with an industry in its growth period is a way of enhancing experience level. Real estate business of China is also booming and enjoyed a huge growth in last few years. Therefore being a professional, it will be a great opportunity for me to join your organization of repute and raise my career graph. I have completed my education from United States. I possess an MBA degree with specialization in Finance. Therefore I have a strong background in Finance. Even while pursuing MBA, I was engaged with the study of economics as

Budgeting Coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Budgeting Coursework - Essay Example The second difference is that the first three stages entail the writing of the budgeting while the last three stages have to do with implementation. Being the writing stages, the first three steps encounter concrete discussion and contradiction among the involved stakeholders. There is a lot of debate at this stage due to its impact on the entire process. This is different from the last three stages which do not require a lot of debate. Professionals in the implementation stage are expected to meet the prerequisite of the budget with limited need for debate. They are not supposed to make any amendment to the budget unless advised. Their ideas that professionals are only expected to meet the expectation of the budget makes the second stage more technical than the first stage. This is contrary to the first section where the players have to ensure the desires of the public are met. The third difference is that the first three stages and most specifically the second and third stages invo lve the budget policy-making process. The fourth stage has to do with the implementation of the agreed policies. Policymaking process requires the politician who represents a definite section of the population. Implementation of the policy requires competent experts who are knowledgeable enough to put into practice the formulated policies. In the political section, the public is involved either through their representative in the legislature or through the media. The interest of the public is addressed during the first three stages.... Being the writing stages, the first three steps encounter concrete discussion and contradiction among the involved stakeholders. There is a lot of debate in this stage due to its impact on the entire process. This is different from the last three stages which do not require a lot of debate. Professionals in the implementation stage are expected to meet the prerequisite of the budget with limited need for debate. They are not supposed to make any amendment to the budget unless advised2. There ideas that professionals are only expected to meet the expectation of the budget makes the second stage more technical than the first stage. This is contrary to the first section where the players have to ensure the desires of the public are met. The third difference is that, the first three stages and most specifically the second and third stages involve budget policy making process. The fourth stage has to do with the implementation of the agreed policies. Policy making process requires politic ian who represent a definite section of the population. Implementation of the policy requires competent experts who are knowledgeable enough to put into practice the formulated policies. In the political section, the public are involved either through their representative in the legislature or through the media. The interest of the public are addressed during the first three stages. Implementation stages involve the experts only. Public members are passive participant in this level. On the other hand, public involvement is not pertinent. Technicians have the biggest role in the last two stages. Why the differences exist All the stages are very imperative in the budget process. One stage cannot be

Chinese Monetary and Exchange System Reform Dissertation

Chinese Monetary and Exchange System Reform - Dissertation Example There are many doubts over the government’s claims of effective capital controls and the proofs of â€Å"hot money† tell a very different story. The bigger openness of economy will certainly create an environment of tension with the China's closed capital account. The country must put in place a strong institutional framework and a solid financial infrastructure. These are very necessary measures for accommodating freedom of cross-border capital flows and can provide China chances of making meaningful progress in banking reform in the next three to five years. During the last two years, China’s currency current account surplus registered a rapid increase, showing an increase of 817 billion dollars (or 1.5 percent) of gross domestic product in 2001 to 46 billion (or 3.2 percent) of gross domestic product in 2003. Its currency remains depreciated by nearly all metrics. The country ran a trade surplus of 32 billion dollars in 2004 compared with a surplus of about 25.5 billion dollars in 2003. For two causes, however, the fundamental recent account surplus in the years 2003 and 2004 is merely about undoubtedly significantly higher than the calculated surplus. The first cause, the economy of the country has been growing fast, at a record-setting but clearly flawed pace. High growth has encouraged an unprecedented demand for imports, which showed a rise of 40 percent in 2003, making the country third largest importer of world. In 2004 imports registered an additional increase of 36 percent. cent. While China's economic growth ultimately slows to a more sustainable pace, it is quite likely that import growth will slow down relative to the growth of exports and in result trade surplus of the country will how wide gap. Amid 1990 that was the prototype in the final macroeconomic cycle when the trade accounts reinforced considerably. The second cause, mainly because of the peg of Chinese currency Yuan to the US dollar, the real trade-weighted value of the Chinese Yuan has

Is Behavioral Treatment of Obesity Effective Essay - 2

Is Behavioral Treatment of Obesity Effective - Essay Example Apart from the high cost of treating and managing obesity and the related health effects, the high prevalence of obesity increases morbidity and mortality. The obesity problem has attracted significant attention from multiple stakeholders including governments, health sector, and researchers. This has resulted in the identification of potential treatment strategies, most of which are related to preventive treatment. One of the proposed preventive treatment approaches for obesity is behavioral treatment. Apparently, obesity is widely regarded as a lifestyle health condition that can be effectively managed through altering our lifestyles. With the real health and cost effects of managing obesity, it is important to consider the effectiveness of proposed treatment approaches. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether behavioral treatment of obesity is effective by analyzing three peer-reviewed articles on the same subject. This article presents the details of an empirical study that sought to compare the effectiveness of behavioral treatment for obesity using three delivery methods including via the internet, in-person, and a hybrid of the internet and in-person. The researchers’ primary purpose of the study was to evaluate the comparative efficacy of delivering a comprehensive behavior treatment for obesity using the three methods. The secondary purpose was the evaluation of perceived social support and treatment adherence to the three treatment delivery methods. To realize these, the researchers recruited 481 overweight adult participants for the longitudinal study which lasted for a period of six months (Harvey-Berino et al., 2010).

Cover Letter for a Residency Program in Family Medicine Essay

Cover Letter for a Residency Program in Family Medicine - Essay Example I am confident that my combination of practical work experience and reliable educational background has prepared me for making an immediate impact on large public hospitals. Having worked in leading international hospitals in the health care, I am highly skilled in various clinical procedures and understand the level of professionalism and communication that should be displayed for the long-term success in the medical area. My background and professional approach to treatments made me responsible, punctual and extremely organized. During these years of high competition I developed leadership qualities with skills to motivate employees around me. I have proved my abilities to successfully carry out managerial tasks and actively react to emergency situations. I believe that I can be of significant and valuable contribution to the Canadian Medical facility as a physician. I hope that my professional dedication and hard-working attitude will serve the healthcare need and will provide the community with the respected health support.

French Existentialism Philosophers Essay Example for Free

French Existentialism Philosophers Essay Gabriel Marcel is known to be one of the more religious philosophers who was a French Existentialist. He was a committed Catholic Philosopher and he believed that by being connected to others he will be connected to god. He believed that philosophy should be about hope and wanted to portray the more positive aspects of human characteristics through his writings and thoughts. Marcel has a belief that problems and mysteries were two separate ideas where problems exist outside and apart from ourselves and mysteries were unsolved queries that were more internal to one’s self. For example determining what a body is, is a problem and determining what my body is, is a mystery. He believes that we can use primary and secondary reflections in order to seek a solution to the problem or mystery being faced with. Primary reflections use analytical skills to separate the thinker from the problematic object in order to find a resolution. Separating the thinker from the problem is important in order to effectively reflect and create intellectual and moral means to a solution. Primary reflections use means of abstracting data and using it in order to manipulate the world and deal with the problem that is not always black and white or a right or wrong answer. Primary reflection approaches problems from an objective standpoint where the thinker is separate from the problem while the secondary reflection begins with the experience of existence within the problem and is used with reflection of a mystery. The secondary reflection is open to contemplation by looking at it as a unique presence. The existence within the world is not a problem that needs to be solved because humans and their bodies are intrinsically related to the world and they are in relation to each other, not objects or problems that can be manipulated. Marcel believed that Philosophy is a part of reflecting on a mystery and the mystery requires participation of the person reflecting because it is an experience of presence itself. A mystery involves you as an intrinsical part of the question which is a question of yourself and requires a solution by secondary reflection. A question becomes a mystery when it takes itself into the subject. Marcel believes that humans are increasingly becoming defined by their problems which cause alienation of themselves from themselves and also causing separation from others. The questions of â€Å"being† and humans are mysteries within the Marcel philosophies. When something is recognized as â€Å"not being† it cannot be a mystery. As humans we have a need for â€Å"being† with â€Å"ontological exigence† which consumes â€Å"being† upsurges of joy, happiness, hopefulness, expectations and desires. â€Å"Being† as a human means existing and experiencing the world and the subjects within it. Having something means exercising power over that thing by possession and rights to those possessions. By having rights over a possession can also enables that person to have the ability of disposal of that subject as well. Having something is different from experiencing that thing, for example having a body is different form experiencing your body because you cannot rid yourself of your body without ceasing to be. Life is not identical to a person’s â€Å"being† because â€Å"being† is the whole self which is more than life and it is what a person aspires to be. Humans can only evoke the fullness of â€Å"being† by engaging with others and coming together as a community. Marcel promotes the idea of living I-Thou which opens up and enhances a person’s â€Å"being† which God being the ultimate Thou. The I-Thou idea requires a person to be open to the â€Å"being† of others within their lives and not living only for themselves. Marcel has an interesting stance on the subject of love and how it should be defined. He believes that love has to do with inner subjectivity and it is about seeking and experiencing the â€Å"being† of the other. Love is not about possession or having another person which is commonly thought to be the main definition of what love means. Marcel believes that a self does not love, but it is the self that is constituted by love. When we attach predicates to a thou we limit our love for another and it’s trust and faith which constitutes love in the â€Å"being† of the other. I always thought that love had to do with possessing and labeling a person or subject as yours. However, Marcel’s philosophy on love has changed my point of view into believing that love is about fully accepting a person as who they are instead of trying to possess them and changing them into being an object of your desire and control. Part B: In Simone Beauvoir’s writing of The Ethics of Ambiguity she begins to elaborate on ethics and the importance of a moral obligation to overcome oppression. Moral acts and willing one’s self free is an obligation of a person in order to become a moral person. With moral freedom a person is not free unless they can deal with free individuals. We all should strive for our freedom as well as the freedom of others and the freedom of all. The freedom to choose is shaped by social and political freedom of people. Beauvoir believes that in order to free all we must take a stand for justice especially in the political sense. We ought to respect freedom when it serves freedom, but not when freedom distances itself from itself. For example when freedom is used in the oppression and the abuse of others, we ought not to respect it in cases such as a dictatorship oppressing the freedom of its people. Oppressing an oppressor is justified even when it requires violence and in cases of people rising up and rebelling the person or the system that has been oppressing them it is justifiable. In such cases casualties of war with sacrifices is justified when fighting for freedom because it makes it a just war. Simone Beauvoir states â€Å"the truth is that if division and violence define war, the world has always been at war and will always be; if man is waiting for universal peace in order to establish his existence validly, he will wait indefinitely: there will never be any other future. † (Beauvoir ) With this she means that if the only reasons for war are for violence to annihilate the other opponent because of division then war will never end and people will never reach complete liberation. However, oppressing and oppressor should never be driven by blind faith. The actions must be considered fully well and deliberate over choice. Each circumstance should be considered on a case by case basis and analyzed by practical problems. Ethics emphasize physical and social interaction in relation to other human beings because of freedom. Authentic morality involves engagement with the world that is not abstract intellectualism. People who sit by and talk about the problems and the circumstances that accustom the world are not engaging with the world directly. Beauvoir stresses that in order to achieve authentic morality people must do something to engage with the world not intellectualize the problems within it. Humans have a moral commitment to liberate the oppressed individuals because it causes limited liberation of their own freedom. Oppressed individuals may not even know that they are being oppressed and this why it is important for others to enlighten them and help them become liberated from their situation. With an oppressed individual, their own judgment that they are oppressed is what counts and this is why it’s an obligation of others who recognize the oppression to give them knowledge of their situation. Oppressed people are cut off from the future without the power of liberation to decide what is next for them in their lives. With liberation a person must be able to question values and oppressed individuals are not able to do this. Being oppressed does not gain moral character because character is not built by suffering. A person cannot say that they are a strong person because they have been accepting oppression and the suffering that comes with it. A person is strong when they take a stand for their liberation and fight for their own values as well as the liberation of others. However, power is limited within liberation, Beauvoir enforces this by stating that â€Å"to be free is not to have the power to do anything you like; it is to be able to surpass the given toward an open future; the existence of others as a freedom defines my situation and is even the condition of my own freedom. † (Beauvoir ) Power is a foundation of moral freedom and in order to engage the world a person must have power, but it is a limited power. Not only individuals of the world, but state also has an obligation to ensure that it’s people have a minimum level of well-being because this is necessary to freely act within the world. External help is needed in order to alleviate oppression and once an oppressed individual is placed within the presence of freedom they must pursue freedom for themselves and one cannot force freedom upon them or it would not be recognized as freedom at all. Works cited Beauvoir, S. D. The Works of Simone de Beauvoir. Zuubooks. com, 2010. Print. Marcel, Gabriel. A Gabriel Marcel Reader. 1st edition. St. Augustines Press, 2011. Print.